Therapeutic Applications of Plant-Based Terpenes: Natural Remedies for Product Development

DISCLAIMER: This article is provided strictly for educational and informational purposes only. The information presented is based on scientific research but should not be interpreted as medical advice. No statements in this content have been evaluated by the FDA. Terpenes and products containing terpenes are not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease or medical condition. Always consult qualified healthcare professionals before using any plant-based compounds for health purposes. Terpene Belt Farms makes no claims regarding the therapeutic efficacy of any products and bears no responsibility for any consequences resulting from the use of information contained herein.

Terpenes are one of the most diverse classes of natural products in the plant kingdom, with a wide range of biological activities and potential applications. As B2B cannabis and hemp product developers move beyond cannabinoid-focused formulations, understanding the research surrounding terpenes is essential for informed product development.

Key Takeaways

• Terpenes’ structural complexity influences their thermal stability, aromatic contributions, and potential for therapeutic or industrial use.
• Terpenes demonstrate broad biological effects (e.g., antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antitumor properties) through diverse action mechanisms,
• Due to volatility, poor water solubility, and first-pass metabolism, terpene-based product development requires tailored delivery systems (e.g., emulsions, encapsulation, lipid carriers) and route-specific strategies to optimize bioavailability and stability.
• Preclinical studies suggest terpenes may support mood regulation, neuroprotection, cardiovascular function, and metabolic health.
• Although terpenes generally show therapeutic promise, they may pose toxicity risks, particularly to liver health, necessitating careful research and formulation.

Terpene Classifications and Structure-Function Relationships

Terpenes are classified based on their number of isoprene units, with each category demonstrating distinct physical properties and biological activities that determine their applications in product development:

Monoterpenes (C₁₀H₁₆) contain two isoprene units and are characterized by boiling points between 150-185°C. These include familiar compounds like myrcene, limonene, and α-pinene. Their relatively simple architecture makes them highly volatile, contributing to immediate aromatic impact but requiring special handling to prevent degradation during processing and storage.

Sesquiterpenes (C₁₅H₂₄) comprise three isoprene units and exhibit greater molecular complexity than monoterpenes. With higher boiling points (typically 250-280°C), these compounds provide greater formulation stability while contributing to the “middle notes” of cannabis aroma profiles. Major sesquiterpenes include β-caryophyllene, humulene, and farnesene.

Diterpenes (C₂₀H₃₂) contain four isoprene units and show exceptional thermal stability, with boiling points exceeding 400°C. While less abundant in cannabis essential oil than mono- and sesquiterpenes, diterpenes like taxol, phorbol, and cembrene have been studied extensively.

Triterpenes (C₃₀H₄₈) represent one of the largest and most structurally complex terpene classes. With six isoprene units, these compounds typically exist as crystalline solids at room temperature. Although they contribute minimally to flavor and aroma characteristics, they are, nonetheless, the subject of numerous research studies.

Tetraterpenes (C₄₀H₆₄), commonly known as carotenoids, consist of eight isoprene units and include compounds like β-carotene, lutein, and lycopene. These highly unsaturated molecules primarily function as antioxidants and provide plant photoprotection.

The molecular architecture of each terpene class influences their potential applications. For example, the relatively simple structure of monoterpenes facilitates interaction with biological membranes, while the complex polycyclic structures of triterpenes support interaction with specific cellular receptors and signaling pathways.

Antimicrobial Properties: Research Findings

Research on the pharmacological activity of terpenes has yielded interesting findings that could inform product development. According to studies, several mechanisms have been identified through which certain terpenes may exhibit antimicrobial effects:

Cell Membrane Interactions

Terpenes have been studied for their interactions with bacterial cell membranes. Their lipophilic nature allows them to partition into bacterial membranes, potentially altering permeability.

For example, 1,8-cineole, a monoterpene extracted from fragrant plants (e.g., Myrtle), exhibits a wide range of anti-microbial activity by disrupting bacterial cell membranes, leading to lysis and death. It also inhibits biofilm formation and minimizes bacterial virulence by interfering with quorum sensing (QS) signaling.

However, research suggests that these membrane-related activities might be more pronounced against gram-positive bacteria, which lack the protective outer membrane found in gram-negative species.

Protein Synthesis Research

Certain terpenes may affect bacterial protein synthesis pathways. Cinnamaldehyde, for instance, has been shown to inhibit protein cell division in FtsZ, a prokaryotic tubulin homolog involved in bacterial cell division. This positions it as a potential anti-FtsZ agent in drug design.

Efflux Pump Studies

Scientists have also studied how terpene compounds might affect bacterial efflux pumps, which are mechanisms used by bacteria to expel antibiotics before they reach effective concentrations.

Geraniol, for instance, is shown to “modulate drug resistance in several gram-negative bacterial species by targeting efflux mechanisms.” Similarly, research indicates that certain terpenes (e.g., carvacrol) might influence the expression of proteins like TetK, NorA, and MsrA, which are associated with efflux mechanisms in Staphylococcus aureus.

Product Development Considerations

These research insights suggest several areas that product developers might consider when using terpenes:

• Topical terpene-infused formulations with carrier systems appropriate for dermal applications
• Oral care products incorporating terpenes with potential effects against common oral microorganisms
• Natural preservatives for product formulations that utilize terpenes as alternatives to synthetic preservatives
• Combinations of different terpenes that might work through complementary mechanisms

Monoterpenes like carvacrol and thymol generally demonstrate broader activity profiles in laboratory tests, while certain sesquiterpenes show more selective effects.

Anti-Inflammatory Research and Pain Management Studies

The potential anti-inflammatory properties of various terpenes have also been extensively studied, with several mechanisms being investigated in laboratory and animal studies.

Cytokine Research

Certain terpenes might affect the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1 (IL-1), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and nuclear transcription factor-kappa B (NF-κB). This represents an area of active research interest.

β-Caryophyllene is a unique terpene due to its interaction with cannabinoid type 2 (CB2) receptors, which are predominantly expressed on immune cells. It is hypothesized that this interaction might influence the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and immune cell migration.

Enzyme Studies

Some terpenes can modulate enzymes involved in inflammatory pathways. Alpha-pinene, for example, has been studied for its potential effects on nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), which regulates inflammatory gene expression. Research suggests it might affect the production of inflammatory mediators, including TNF-α, IL-1β, and nitric oxide.

Similarly, some monoterpenes interact with cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) enzymes, which catalyze the production of inflammatory mediators. For example, terpinene, α-terpineol, α-carveol, and menthone exhibit selective COX-2 inhibition, with α-terpineol showing higher COX-2 activity inhibition than aspirin, a popular NSAID.

Pain Response Studies

The pain-modulating property of some terpenes is a pertinent subject given the prevalence of pain. α- and β-pinene have been compared to aspirin and other NSAIDs in studies examining pain responses and these terpenes’ anti-inflammatory actions and potential central effects on pain signaling pathways

Linalool has been studied for its potential interaction with adenosine A1 and A2A receptors and effects on glutamate signaling. These findings reflect growing scientific interest in understanding how terpenes might contribute to pain perception and modulation.

Formulation Considerations for Research Applications

For product developers exploring various terpene effects for potential applications, these factors are worth considering:

• Terpene selection should be informed by research related to the particular biological mechanisms being targeted.
• Concentration considerations are vital, as terpenes produce different effects at different concentrations.
• Delivery system selection can significantly impact compound bioavailability.
• Combining terpenes with complementary effect profiles provides interesting formulation opportunities.

Research on Cellular Functions

The potential effects of terpenes on cellular functions open up several areas of interest in laboratory studies:

Cell Cycle Research

Laboratory studies have examined how certain terpenes might influence cell division cycles. Taxol, a diterpene, has been studied for its interaction with microtubules, which play a role in cell division. This has made it a compound of interest in oncology.

Similarly, in laboratory tumor cell models, carvacrol (a monoterpene) displays promising effects on cell cycle regulators like cyclin D1 and CDK4/1 expression. Also, through distinct molecular mechanisms, menthol could affect different cell cycle phases in various tumor cell types.

Although the underlying mode of action remains unclear, these preliminary findings underline the promising potential of terpene compounds in developing therapeutic-focused products.

Apoptosis Studies

Apoptosis (programmed cell death) is another area where terpene research yields interesting insights. Hinokitiol, a natural monoterpenoid, has been studied for various cellular effects, including potential impacts on DNA, autophagy mechanisms, and cell cycle regulation in cancerous cells.

Similarly, research suggests that d-limonene might influence protein expression patterns related to apoptosis in laboratory cancer cell models. Other areas of interest include its potential effects on proteins like Bax and Bcl-2, which influence cellular apoptotic pathways, and its impact on signaling molecules including Ras, Raf, MEK, and ERK1/2.

Signaling Pathway Investigations

Terpenes may also play a key role in influencing signaling pathways in cellular function. Parthenolide, a sesquiterpene, has been researched for its effects on the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway in human hepatocellular carcinoma and breast cancer cells.

Moreover, auraptene’s potential effects on the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, which plays roles in cell proliferation and differentiation, highlight the therapeutic potential of terpenes in combating stubborn diseases.

Combinatorial Research

Some terpenes have been investigated for their potential effect on cellular responses to conventional chemotherapeutic agents. Thymoquinone (present in black cumin), for example, displays anti-cancer effects on pancreatic cancer cells.

Another terpene compound called Artesunate, a derivative of the sesquiterpene lactone artemisinin, exhibits promising effects in prostate cancer, primarily by enhancing the efficacy of enzalutamide, a second-generation androgen receptor inhibitor developed to treat castration-resistant prostate cancer.

It’s important to note that while lab research provides valuable insights, most current evidence comes from preclinical studies. Further research is needed to better understand the potential applications of these findings.

Neurological Research

Terpenes could also be quite valuable on the neurological front. Their potential neurological effects suggest possible benefits for mood modulation, neuroprotection, and cognitive function.

Research on Anxiety and Mood

Linalool’s interaction with neurotransmitter systems, including glutamatergic and GABAergic pathways, is thought to be responsible for the sedative effects. Similarly, its influence on GABA-A receptors, thought to parallel certain aspects of benzodiazepines (without the dependency risks), presents it as a candidate ingredient in anti-anxiety drug design.

Limonene exhibits mood-enhancing effects. Its mode of action involves influencing serotonergic neurotransmissions and stress hormone levels. Inhaling it is also thought to help alleviate anxiety and mood disorders.

Neuroprotection

Terpenes may possess valuable neuroprotective properties besides helping with mood. β-Caryophyllene research has focused on its selective activation of CB2 receptors in the central nervous system, with studies examining whether this could influence neuroinflammatory processes, which are common in many neurological conditions.

Cognitive Function

Some terpenes could potentially benefit cognitive processes. For example, α-Pinene’s inhibitory effect on acetylcholinesterase, the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine, may contribute to better cognitive outcomes since this neurotransmitter is involved in learning and memory processes. This suggests potential areas of application in age-related cognitive changes or attention problems.

Neurodegenerative

Some triterpenes have been shown to potentially affect protein aggregation processes involved in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. Additionally, research has examined whether terpenes’ anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties might influence oxidative stress and neuroinflammation characteristics associated with these conditions.

Product Development Approaches

For developers creating mental health-focused formulations, these approaches may be worth considering:

• Inhalation delivery systems that utilize the olfactory pathway connecting the nasal cavity to brain regions
• Sublingual and buccal formulations that provide enhanced bioavailability compared to oral administration
• Mixing formulas that incorporate terpenes with different effect profiles
• Time-released formulations that could provide sustained effects for extended applications

Cardiovascular and Metabolic Research

Research on terpenes’ potential cardiovascular and metabolic effects is growing, with vascular function and lipid metabolism cited as possible pathways.

Cardiovascular

Borneol has been investigated for its effects in myocardial ischemia-reperfusion models, with research highlighting antioxidant mechanisms and mitochondrial function preservation as probable action pathways.

Similarly, α-Pinene displays potential vasorelaxant properties, with research pointing to nitric oxide production and calcium channel modulation as possible action mechanisms. These effects are relevant to advancing understanding of vascular inflammation processes.

Despite these promising research findings, the knowledge base on this subject topic is limited, hence the need for additional research to build on what is currently available.

Cholesterol and Lipid Metabolism

Another interesting research area concerns the potential benefits of terpenes for cholesterol metabolism. Geraniol exhibits inhibitory effects on HMG-CoA reductase, the same enzyme targeted by statin medications, highlighting its potential to influence total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels.

Moreover, experiments on hyperlipidemic mice investigating whether α-terpineol (found in plants like Melaleuca alternifolia) may affect HDL-C levels, liver enzyme activity, and serum bilirubin levels show potential implications in obesity management.

Glucose Metabolism

Terpenes could potentially affect glucose metabolism in type 2 diabetes. Some triterpenes have been investigated for possible benefits related to diabetic complications, with research examining pathways associated with hyperglycemia and its consequences in conditions like diabetic retinopathy and kidney function.

In animal research, D-limonene treatment has been shown to influence plasma glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels and the activities of gluconeogenic enzymes like fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase and glucose 6-phosphatase. Studies have also examined whether it might influence the activity of glucokinase and liver glycogen in diabetic rat models.

Hepatoprotection

There is growing interest in whether terpenoids might support liver health, with particular focus on conditions like chronic liver disease, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis.

Although terpenes have been studied for potential beneficial effects, scientific literature also documents certain monoterpenes (e.g., pulegone, menthofuran, camphor, and limonene) and sesquiterpenes (e.g., zederone and germacrone) displaying potential liver toxicity.

These effects appear related to the production of reactive metabolites, elevated reactive oxygen species, and influences on antioxidant defense mechanisms.

Product Development Considerations

For developers working with terpenes in the context of cardiovascular and metabolic research, these factors could help guide formulation approaches:

• Careful consideration of research related to specific biological targets within these systems
• Selection of terpenes with research-backed findings for specific biological processes
• Attention to potential hepatic effects, particularly for formulations using higher concentrations of terpenes with documented hepatotoxicity potential
• Development of delivery systems that consider bioavailability for relevant tissues

Formulation and Delivery Considerations

Developing effective terpene-based products requires addressing the formulation challenges related to these compounds’ physical and chemical properties:

Stability Considerations

The volatility and oxidative susceptibility of terpenes is a constant challenge in product formulations. Techniques that might enhance terpene stability include:

• Incorporating antioxidant compounds to minimize oxidative degradation
• Leveraging microencapsulation technologies to protect terpenes from environmental factors
• Cold processing and storage protocols to minimize volatile loss
• Specialized packaging with minimal headspace and oxygen barrier properties

Solubility Approaches

Some terpenes demonstrate limited water solubility, which can complicate their incorporation into aqueous formulations. However, these strategies might help address solubility limitations:

• Selection of appropriate co-solvents compatible with the target application
• Development of emulsion-based delivery systems for incorporating terpenes into water-based formulations
• Use of cyclodextrin complexation to enhance water dispersibility while preserving terpene activity
• Lipid-based delivery systems that accommodate the natural lipophilicity of most terpenes

Our Emulsified Dessert Blend exemplifies the emulsion-based delivery system. This formulation maintains a precise 3% hemp essential oil to 97% emulsifier ratio, creating a water-dispersible product that preserves the natural balance of its terpene profile. This demonstrates how emulsification can maintain complex terpenes while achieving beverage compatibility.

Route-Specific Considerations

The biological activity of terpenes can vary significantly based on administration route, hence the need for tailored formulation approaches.

Inhalation Delivery: For inhalable applications, the major considerations could include particle/droplet size, thermal stability during vaporization, and respiratory tract compatibility.

Topical Applications: For dermatological and localized applications, skin penetration is ideal but challenging. As such, incorporating specific monoterpenes with penetration-enhancing properties facilitates the efficient delivery of active components.

Oral Administration: For oral applications, formulations must address first-pass metabolism, which can significantly reduce the bioavailability of terpenes. Enteric coatings, advanced lipid carriers, and pro-drug approaches may help overcome these limitations.

Analytical Considerations

Proper analysis and characterization of terpenes throughout product development and shelf life are essential to ensure product quality.

• Gas chromatography with appropriate detection methods for accurate quantification of terpene content
• Stability-indicating analytical methods that can distinguish between parent terpenes and their degradation products
• Appropriate sampling techniques that minimize volatile loss during sample preparation
• Validated methods for complex matrices that may contain interfering compounds

Conclusion: Research Potential and Development Opportunities

Research on terpenes offers substantial opportunities for product developers interested in creating evidence-based natural products. Their broad biological and pharmacological profiles provide a foundation for developing products with potential therapeutic benefits.

For cannabis product manufacturers, terpenes are valuable components for enhancing the sensory and functional aspects of products. By basing terpene selection on empirical research, developers can create products with more predictable characteristics and benefits.

While exploration on their biological mechanisms and potential applications continues, existing evidence provides valuable guidance for product development. As formulators advance their understanding of terpene properties and formulation challenges, these compounds will likely play an increasingly important role in next-generation natural products.

For companies seeking premium terpenes for product development, Terpene Belt Farms offers a range of native cannabis terpene profiles for various applications. Contact our product development team to discuss more about your formulation goals.

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